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Ardvin et al. (2023); perceived barriers were adapted from Shrish et al. (2025); attitude
toward health behavior was adapted from Filipe et al. (2023); and intention to use family
doctor services was adapted from Ardvin et al. (2023). All items were measured using a
five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The
questionnaire was pilot-tested to ensure linguistic clarity and cultural appropriateness,
and minor revisions were made prior to formal data collection.
Data collection was conducted between October and December 2025 using a self-
administered survey. A convenience sampling approach was employed to reach
respondents aged 18 years and above residing in Northern Vietnam. Participation was
voluntary, and respondents were informed about the study objectives and assured of
anonymity and confidentiality. The collected data were screened and analyzed using SPSS
version 27 for preliminary analysis and descriptive statistics. Subsequently, Partial Least
Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was applied using SmartPLS 4 to assess
the measurement and structural models and to test the proposed hypotheses.
Bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples was performed to evaluate the significance of the
path coefficients.
4. Results
4.1. The characteristics of the participants
The study sample consisted of 823 respondents residing in Northern Vietnam.
Females accounted for 52.6% of the sample, while males represented 45.8%. The largest
age group was 35-44 years (35.0%), followed by respondents aged under 25 (23.0%) and
25-34 years (19.1%). In terms of education, the majority had completed high school or
higher education, with university and postgraduate qualifications accounting for over 43%
of the sample.
Regarding socioeconomic characteristics, household income varied across groups,
with most respondents reporting a monthly household income below 30 million VND.
More than 80% of participants reported having public or private health insurance
coverage. Most respondents rated their current health status as good or very good, while
approximately 28% reported having a chronic condition requiring regular health
monitoring. Although the majority had not previously used family doctor services, the
sample included both urban (71.4%) and rural (28.6%) residents, providing a diverse
representation of the target population.
4.2. Measurement Model Assessment
To ensure the quality of the measurement model, we conducted a series of
evaluations following the guidelines proposed by Hair et al. (2021), including indicator
reliability, internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity.
Indicator Reliability
Indicator reliability was assessed via outer loadings of the reflective items. Following
the standard threshold of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2021), one item (PBE1) was removed during
the first iteration due to a loading below this value. In the second iteration, all remaining
items demonstrated outer loadings above 0.70, ranging from 0.701 to 0.886, indicating
acceptable reliability and sufficient indicator contribution to their respective latent
constructs.

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