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notably the United Nations E-Government Development Index (EGDI), the World Bank
GovTech Maturity Index (GTMI), and the Government AI Readiness Index developed by
Oxford Insights. While these indicators provide important insights into digital government
development, they are often analyzed separately. Consequently, the structural
relationship between these layers of digital governance remains insufficiently explored.
Recent studies highlight the importance of institutional conditions in shaping the
adoption of AI in the public sector. Anomah (2025) proposes an analytical approach
combining the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework with Institutional
Theory to explain how public institutions develop the capacity to implement AI. From this
perspective, AI adoption depends not only on technological infrastructure but also on
organizational capability and institutional environments such as regulatory frameworks
and policy coordination.
Vietnam provides a relevant case for examining this transition. According to the
United Nations E-Government Survey 2024, the country achieved an EGDI score of
approximately 0.77 and ranked 71st among 193 countries, entering the “Very High” e-
government development group for the first time (United Nations, 2024). These results
reflect significant progress in digital infrastructure and online public services. However,
the development of AI in Vietnam’s public sector remains uneven. International
assessments indicate continuing limitations related to data integration, innovation
ecosystems, and technological capacity. Empirical evidence also shows that AI adoption in
Vietnamese local governments depends strongly on leadership capacity and the ability to
coordinate data across public agencies (Nguyen et al., 2026).
Despite growing interest in digital governance and AI, existing studies on Vietnam
remain limited. Most research focuses on policy discussions or individual cases, while
relatively few studies position Vietnam within an international comparative framework
using multiple global indicators. Moreover, digital government development and AI
readiness are often examined separately.
To address this gap, this study evaluates Vietnam’s position in the transition from e-
government to AI-enabled governance through an integrated analysis of three global
indices: the United Nations E-Government Development Index (EGDI), the World Bank
GovTech Maturity Index (GTMI), and the Government AI Readiness Index developed by
Oxford Insights. Drawing on the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework
and Institutional Theory, the study conceptualizes digital government development as a
three-layer structure consisting of e-government foundations, GovTech integration, and
AI readiness, thereby providing a comparative perspective on Vietnam’s progress toward
AI-enabled governance.
2. Literature review
2.1. E-government and the evolution toward data-driven digital governance
Over the past two decades, e-government has become a central approach for
modernizing public administration and improving public service delivery. The United
Nations defines e-government as the use of information and communication technologies
(ICT) to enhance government operations, increase transparency, and facilitate citizen
participation in governance processes (United Nations, 2024). Globally, the development
of e-government is commonly assessed using the E-Government Development Index
(EGDI), which captures three main dimensions: online public services,
telecommunications infrastructure, and human capital (United Nations, 2024).

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