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et al., 2022). Furthermore, in sensitive sectors like finance, data collection evokes a "being
watched" sensation, prompting users to maintain the status quo rather than adopting
robo-advisors (Aw et al., 2024). Most recently, regarding virtual streamers, when
consumers perceive algorithmic surveillance as a threat to their boundaries, they actively
manifest resistance by withdrawing to regain control (Shao & Ho, 2025). Thus, the
following hypothesis is proposed:
H6: Intrusiveness risk has a positive effect on resistance intention.
2.3. Proposed research model
Combining foundational theoretical frameworks and insights from prior studies, this
research proposes the following research model:

Figure 1. Research Model
Source: Authors’ own work (2026)
2.4. Methodology
This study employs a quantitative approach to examine the relationships between
perceived autonomy and perceived anthropomorphism of virtual streamers and viewers’
intrusiveness risk, privacy disclosure risk, and resistance intention in livestream contexts.
Data were collected through a structured self-administered questionnaire designed to
measure participants’ risk perceptions and behavioral intentions when interacting with
virtual streamers.
The measurement scales were adapted from validated prior studies to ensure
content validity and theoretical consistency. Specifically, the scale for perceived
autonomy was adapted from Lucia-Palacios and Pérez-López (2023), perceived
anthropomorphism from Xiao et al. (2025), and intrusiveness risk, privacy disclosure risk,
and resistance intention from Shao and Ho (2025). All constructs were measured using a
five-point Likert scale. Data were collected from October 2025 to January 2026 using a
snowball sampling method, with participation being voluntary and respondents’
anonymity ensured. The data were screened and preliminarily analyzed using SPSS,
followed by PLS-SEM analysis using SmartPLS 4 to assess the measurement model,
structural model, and the proposed research hypotheses.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Descriptive statistics of the study sample
The study sample involved 389 participants aged 18 and above residing in major
urban centers across Vietnam. The sample exhibits a notable gender imbalance, with
female respondents accounting for 55.3% of the total, nearly doubling the representation
of males. The age structure is heavily skewed toward the youth demographic, as 86.6% of
participants fall within the 18 to 25 age range, with a marked decline in frequency as age

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