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the modification of synaptic connections between neurons. Understanding these
mechanisms not only helps explain how the brain functions but also provides a scientific
basis for designing more effective learning methods.
2.1.1. The process of long-term memory formation
Neuroscientists often describe the process of storing long-term memory through
five main steps. Each step plays an essential role in transforming a temporary experience
into durable knowledge.

Figure 1. Steps in long-term memory formation
Source: Nature Neuroscience
Sensory information processing
The learning process begins when information is received through the senses such
as vision, hearing, or touch. For example, when a student reads a book or listens to a
lecture, visual and auditory signals are converted into electrochemical signals within the
nervous system.
These signals are then transmitted to sensory processing areas in the cortex.
However, at this stage, the information has not yet become true memory. It only exists in
short-term memory, a system with very limited capacity that retains information for only
a few dozen seconds.
If the information is not attended to or processed more deeply, it will quickly
disappear. This explains why “surface learning” or passive information intake often does
not lead to long-term retention.
Information encoding
Encoding is a critical step that determines whether information will be transferred
into long-term memory. During this stage, the brain transforms sensory information into
meaningful patterns of neural activity.
According to the “levels of processing” theory, the deeper the information is
processed, the higher the likelihood of retention. Simply reading or listening passively is
usually insufficient. In contrast, when learners analyze, connect with prior knowledge, or
use information in real-life contexts, encoding becomes stronger.
The hippocampus plays a central role at this stage. This structure acts as a “memory
coordinator,” linking different elements of an experience—including images, sounds,

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